Self Defence Issues and Implication in Cyberspace

Introduction Cyber crime is a growing global problem. Despite intense efforts by law enforcement officers to stop the practice, cyber crime continues to spread. Brenner (2010) says that partly, the growth of cyber crime stems from the extra-territorial nature of the practice. On the contrary, Wall (2007) argues that the growth of cyber crime mainly stems from the changing nature of such crimes.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Self Defence Issues and Implication in Cyberspace specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The abuse of new technology has also led to the spread of this practice. Consequently, there have been rising numbers of cyber attacks in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). These countries have reported cyber crimes for many years and despite the increased attempts to curb their spread, they continue to increase. Loader (2012) reports that developed countries, which do not have an est ablished internet connection also, report increased incidences of cyber crime.  The American government has taken cyber security with utmost importance. In fact, the US Homeland Security considers America as a thriving ground for cyber crimes. This is because America is not only a victim of such attacks, but also the source of most attacks (Schell 2004). The Anti-Phishing Working Group recently produced new statics that show the growth of cyber crimes within the past year (Chik 2012). Increased awareness of cyber crime in the UK and America has largely informed the rise in the number of cyber crime litigation in both countries. However, most of these litigations do not have a common legislative basis.  This paper explores the nature of cyber crime in the context of the law of defence (in the US and the UK). From this analysis, this paper highlights the legal underpinnings of UK and US laws on self-defence. A lot of emphasis is made to compare the application of the law of defenc e on cyber crime, viz-a-viz the application of the same laws in the â€Å"physical world.† In this regard, this paper explores the law of defence (as outlined by the UN), the right to bear arms, and the implications of these laws in the cyberspace. UK and US Laws on Cyber Crime America Since federal and state governments govern American states, the process of formulating laws divides between the state and federal governments. Usually, state laws are more applicable to cyber crime, unless there is a special situation where there is a need for Federal intervention (Chik 2012). For example, when cyber crime threatens national security, Federal cyber laws may apply.Advertising Looking for research paper on common law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Alternatively, when the prevention of cyber crime requires the uniform application of law, the Federal government may intervene in the formulation (or enforcement) of such laws. Therefore, because of the distributed functions of state and federal governments, both governments have contributed in the formulation and enforcement of cyber law. Nonetheless, because of the political differences in America, every state formulates and enforces their laws. There is therefore no legal requirement for all American states to adopt uniform laws (Chik 2012). UK Specific legislations on cyber crime in Europe inform UK’s cyber laws. Indeed, there is a close relationship between Europe’s public policy on self-defence and UK’s legislations on the same. For example, the UK is subject to cyber crime legislations, as formulated by Council of Europe (CoE). Therefore, the provisions of self-defence laws (under the convention) are applicable in the UK, as they are applicable in other European countries (that are signatories to the convention). The close historical, geographic, and economic relation between UK and Europe inform the close interconnection betwe en the UK and Europe’s cyber laws. Nonetheless, the most common law governing cyber crime in the UK is the Computer Misuse Act of 1990 (Securelist 2012). The government has however updated this act with newer and stiffer penalties. The quest to update this law came from the inadequacies of existing laws to curb hacking activities within the UK. More so, this issue came into sharp focus when previously existing legislations failed to convict Stephen Gold and Robert Schifreen for gaining unauthorised access to a UK organisation, BT Prestel services. Because of the inadequacy of the law to convict the two suspects, the court acquitted them. The Right of Defence Normally, every country has a right to defend its people against any form of attack. However, technological advancements have introduced a new form of attack, which contravenes the conventional wisdom regarding the right to defend a country. The cyberspace is the platform where conventional rules of self-defence have been broken (Arsene 2012).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Self Defence Issues and Implication in Cyberspace specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, as Moore (2010) observes, several countries still adopt a conventional approach to prevent cyber attacks. For example, the US uses the military to defend the country against cyber attacks. Arsene (2012) questions the justification for doing so, because there are many risks associated with adopting a military approach to defending a country against cyber attacks. One risk is the overlap of self-defence and conventional space defence strategies. In other words, militarising cyber security may take a war-like approach, which should not be the case. Therefore, while conventional wisdom may approve the use of force in conventional space, the use of force as a right to self-defence may not work in the cyber world. Therefore, even though a cyber attack may manifest the same characteristics as a conventional attack, responding to such an attack with force may be unlawful (Arsene 2012).  People often compare the self-defence law to the English law. Researchers say this law is part of private defence because it allows for the use of illegal means to prevent an attack (or protect a country from harm) (Himma 2008). In Britain, this law stems from the common law and the criminal law act of 1967 (Samaha 2005). One common principle of self-defence rules focus on the use of reasonable force to prevent an attack. Therefore, from the nature of the law, self-defence is more of a justification as opposed to an excuse (Scheb 2011, p. 417). Globally, the right of self-defence in cyber attacks is still an unresolved issue. Indeed, because of some complexities identified when comparing cyber attacks with conventional attacks, it is difficult for countries to exercise (blindly) their right to self-defence without considering the unique dynamics of cyber attac ks (Committee on Deterring Cyber attacks 2010, p. 163). The UK and the US share the same approach to cyber attacks. Both countries propose the use of force when cyber attacks result in death, injury, harm, or destruction of property. However, the US has been most vocal about this provision. In fact, there are loud calls in the US to treat cyber attacks like â€Å"ordinary† attacks if they cause death or property destruction. The US Defence Department claims that it will not hesitate to use force to defend itself against cyber attacks that can kill, destroy property, or harm its people.Advertising Looking for research paper on common law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Right of Defence as Per the UN Law and Proportionality of Response Article 2 (4) of the UN charter describes situations when countries can use force for self-defence (Ellen 2012). The clause discourages the use of force as a means to solve international conflicts, but it approves it when states need to defend themselves from external aggression. Article 51 of the UN charter stipulates this provision (Ellen 2012). Many people have interpreted the provisions of this charter to either support or oppose the use of force as a self-defence mechanism in cyberspace attacks (Jasper 2012). Here, the main dilemma centres on whether to use force, even when there is no armed attack (like in the cyberspace). Some analysts have approved the use of force in such situations, while others deny the use of force (Ellen 2012). Because of the dilemma caused by the application of Article 51 (the use of force as a self-defence mechanism), the International Court of Justice has been forced to interpret the use of force as a self-defence mechanism. Milhorn (2007) explains the court’s ruling by demonstrating that the use of force as a self-defence mechanism only applies to situations where there is significant and the real threat of a country. The charter also stipulates that the use of force only apply to the specific country that wants to defend itself (Ellen 2012). Moreover, the article says that the intention to defend the country using force should show a high probability of success. Lastly, the charter says that the force applied should be proportional to the damage suffered from the attack (Schiller 2010). All the above stipulations are difficult to apply in the cyberspace. In fact, some observers say it is impossible to apply the above provisions in cyber crime (Wyler 2005). Usually, the complication arises when determining any direct loss of life (or any loss of property) that meets the conditions of triggering article 51. Broadly, it is often difficult to find the e vidence that would trigger the activation of article 51. The complications brought by the nature of cyber crime also pose a challenge to the implementation of article 51 of the UN charter because some cyber crimes are difficult to trace to one country. Moreover, even if a state traces the source of the attack to one country, they may not know the individual who is directing the attack (Wyler 2005). For example, an attacker may infiltrate innocent servers and use them to direct the attacks, as a zombie. Furthermore, trying to trace such attackers may consume a lot of time. Estonia and Iran provide examples of the difficulty of tracing attackers because even though the countries experienced cyber attacks a few years back, they have still been unable to know the real identity of the attackers. Lastly, the main issue affecting the use of force (as stipulated in article 51 of the UN charter) rests on the need to prove proportionality and necessity (Himma 2008, p. 410). Besides the time-c onsuming nature of knowing the identity of attackers, it is also difficult to prove that allowing a counter-attack may achieve the objective of preventing the attack. Similarly, it is difficult to limit the effects on intended targets if a defensive attack occurs. From the strict circumstances that the UN allows defensive attacks, it is difficult to meet the criterion for launching an armed attack in cyber crime (Carr 2011, p. 50). Therefore, even though cyber attacks may interfere with a country’s economic sphere, air space, maritime space, and territorial integrity, it is difficult to depend on article 51 of the UN charter to justify defensive attacks on cyber crimes. Right to Bear Arms In the UK, the right to bear arms is part of the English common law. Scholars, such as, Aristotle and Machiavelli have also recognised this right as part of a person’s right to self-defence. Similarly, the US constitution also acknowledges the right to bear arms as part of self-defenc e laws. The same protection replicates in several state constitutions. Still in the US, the government introduced the right to bear arms as a second amendment to the bill of rights. In the UK, the common law tradition acknowledges the right to bear arms (Wyler 2005).  Parliamentary supremacy in the UK has however imposed many regulations to the right to bear arms. For example, the prerogative to control the right to bear arms shifted from the monarch to parliament. Notably, the Pistol act of 1903 was the main legislative provision that regulated the right to bear arms (Wyler 2005). The right to bear arms covers several weapons that are offensive to the law. Knives and firearms are the main weapons considered offensive by the UK law. While the right to bear arms may be a critical part of self-defence law, its applicability in the cyberspace is impractical. Indeed, the right to bear arms aim to protect a person from a physical assault (or harm). However, attacks in the cyber world a re intangible. Similarly, as other situations described in this paper, it is difficult to know the attacker. Therefore, it is equally difficult to apply the right to bear arms as a means to protect a person from cyberspace attacks. Case Studies Cyber space security poses unique challenges to the application of self-defence laws. For example, when two people share organisational resources through open port access, it is difficult to establish the legal justification for using self-defence legal provisions if an attacker tries to infiltrate the cyber network. This situation is true when one party gives another party the authority to gain access to the organisation’s resources, and the second party responds to a security threat through the established connection. Technically, the second party would not be breaching the law because he responds to the attacker through an established connection. In the above situation, it is difficult to establish the right legal framework for appr oaching the issue because the intention of the attacker is not established. If the second party knew the intention of the attacker, it would be easier to justify the action of the second party who acts in self-defence. This scenario elopes in the Computer misuse act, which seeks to establish the intention of the attacker (first) before any legal consequences are determined. Without knowing the intention of the attacker, it is difficult to establish that the law was broken. An incident that occurred in the UK, in 2004, demonstrates the need to establish the intention of the attacker before castigating an attacker. Here, an organisation accused a teenager of destroying a server by sending millions of mails to the server (Ellen 2012). However, the court ruled that the defendant had not contravened the computer misuse act because his actions did not lead to any unauthorised changes to the information in the computers. The failure to prove the intention of the defendant proved to be the biggest weakness here. However, if the organisation could prove that the teenager changed the information in their servers, they would have established the intention of the attack and held the defendant liable for his actions. They however failed to do so. The above case highlights the need to establish the intention of an attacker as he tries to gain access to the cyber network. With the absence of a determined intention from the attacker, it is difficult to justify a response to an enemy threat. Therefore, the existence of the intention to gain unauthorised access to a cyber attack does not provide sufficient ground to warrant a counter-attack. However, if the attacker went further and altered information on the servers, substantial grounds for a response would be sufficient to warrant a conviction. In a situation where an attacker declares that he is part of a wider network of global cyber commons, issues of self-defence also arise because if an attacker is part of the global cyb er commons, he may install cookies into an organisation’s resources. Cookie installation poses significant threats to online privacy and security because an organisation’s resources could be availed to a third party, thereby compromising an organisation’s cyber safety. Indeed, through the installation of cookies, an attacker may easily access an organisation’s resources and use them to harm it. Bajaj (2012) says that the installation of cookies resembles the storage of an organisation’s resource in a central database where everyone can gain access to it. Moreover, an attacker may intercept an organisation’s traffic (through cookies sent on ordinary unencrypted Http sessions) and use the information acquired here to harm the organisation (Bajaj 2012). Therefore, even though an attacker may be part of the global cyber commons, he may pose significant threats to an organisation. These threats prompt organisations to defend themselves. Therefore , based on the severity and the possibility of such threats occurring, it is crucial for an organisation to defend itself from such risks. Stated differently, if a burglar enters a person’s house, the owner of the house has a right to defend himself. However, the cyberspace (as part of the global cyber common) poses unique challenges to cyber security (and more specifically for issues of self-defence). Albeit an artificial one, Bajaj (2012) explains that the cyberspace is part of the global cyber commons. Therefore, like other national assets like the sea, oceans, land, and air, states need to protect the global cyber commons against any attack. However, unlike physical resources like land and oceans, the global cyber common does not have national borders. Therefore, except for a few strategies discussed in this report, it is very difficult to defend a country/organisation (completely) from attacks in the global cyber commons. However, if an attacker declares that he is part of the global cyber commons and installs cookies in an organisation’s resource base, the law of self-defence applies because as a resource owner it is crucial to monitor the activities of every website visitor. Even though there may be significant flaws in comparing the cyberspace with the physical world, monitoring visitor activities on an organisation’s website resembles installing CCTV cameras to monitor shoppers’ activities in a supermarket. This is a critical safety measure of self-defence.  Nationally, states also protect their interest in the global commons because they understand the implications of the global cyber commons on national security and strategic interests (Bajaj 2012). This is especially more profound in the US. Therefore, protecting a nation’s interest in the cyber common network forms part of national defence. The same justifications, which countries use to protect their national interests in the cyber commons, outline the justifi cation for the enforcement of self-defence laws to monitor visitors’ activities on an organisation’s website.  Different organisations have adopted different strategies for defending themselves against attacks from the global commons. One such strategy is the installation of filters to enforce censorship. However, none of these strategies provide absolute protection to an organisation because the protocols for gaining access to organisational resources are accessible from anywhere in the world. Therefore, different servers and networks can access company resources from different locations around the world. Broadly, the laws for defending an organisation/country against cyber attacks are still unrefined, but it is crucial to say, different countries and organisations continue to pursue the same strategy they would use when defending themselves against physical attacks. Conclusion Self-defence laws aim to protect people and organisations from injury, or harm. However, the changing technological nature of the environment has brought new challenges to the applicability of these laws. Often, the law has played catch up to cyberspace attacks and even developed countries are still grappling with the challenge of enforcing self-defence laws without contravening other laws. This paper demonstrates that the provision for the enforcement of self-defence laws pose unique challenges to the enforcement of the same laws in the cyber world. Therefore, albeit cyber attacks may bear the same characteristics of an armed attack, it is difficult for organisations to evoke self-defence laws, even as outlined by article 51 of the UN charter. Some of the unique challenges posed to the enforcement of self-defence laws in the cyber world include proportionality issues, the trans-national nature of cyber attacks, and the difficulty experienced in identifying the attacker.  Besides the above challenges, it is similarly difficult to invoke self-defence laws (at least in the conventional way) in cyber attacks because cyber attacks (often) do not lead to the direct loss of life. Therefore, there is a significant mismatch between the use of armed attacks (as a self-defence mechanism) because it is difficult to satisfy the conditions for approving armed attacks in the cyberspace.  This paper also highlights significant differences and similarities in the applicability of defence laws in the UK and the US. By the nature of their geography and distribution, both countries are subject to larger legislative provisions in cyber laws. For example, the UK is a signatory to European laws on cyber attacks, while cyber defence laws that the Federal government formulates also bind American states. Even though cyber defence laws continue to evolve in these countries, the English common law is the basis of their enforcement. In America, the bill of rights also plays a critical role in the enforcement of these laws. Nonetheless, throughout the analyses in this pap er, there is a clear trend towards the militarisation of self-defence laws in cyberspace (especially in the US) (Greenwald 2012, p. 2). Analysts should treat this trend with a lot of caution because the militarisation of self-defence laws in the cyber world may fail to achieve the same objectives they would achieve in the â€Å"real† world. It is therefore pertinent for international and local laws to encompass the unique dynamics of cyberspace attacks. The introduction of a new set of laws to accommodate these dynamics may be a good start for many countries to address the unique challenges of the cyber world. References Arsene, L. 2012, U.S. to Apply Self-Defense Rule if Cyber Attacks Turn Hostile. Web. Bajaj, K. 2012, Cyberspace as Global Commons. Web. Brenner, S. 2010, Cybercrime: Criminal Threats from Cyberspace, ABC-CLIO, New York. Carr, J. 2011, Inside Cyber Warfare: Mapping the Cyber Underworld, O’Reilly Media, Inc., New York. Chik, W. 2012, Challenges to Crimin al Law Making in the New Global Information Society: A Critical Comparative Study of the Adequacies of Computer-Related Criminal Legislation in the United States, the United Kingdom and Singapore. Web. Committee on Deterring Cyber attacks 2010, Proceedings of a Workshop on Deterring Cyberattacks: Informing Strategies and Developing Options for U.S. Policy, National Academies Press, New York. Ellen, M. 2012, ‘Cyber Security without Cyber War’, J Conflict Security Law, vol. 17 no. 2, pp. 187-209. Greenwald, G. 2012, Various matters: cyberwar, last gasps, and hate speech. Web. Himma, K. 2008, The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics, John Wiley Sons, London. Jasper, S. 2012, Conflict and Cooperation in the Global Commons: A Comprehensive Approach for International Security, Georgetown University Press, Georgetown. Loader, B. 2012, Cybercrime: Security and Surveillance in the Information Age, Routledge, London. Milhorn, T. 2007, Cybercrime: How to Avoid Becoming a V ictim, Universal-Publishers, New York. Samaha, J. 2005, Criminal Justice, Cengage Learning, London. Securelist 2012, Cybercrime and the law: a review of U.K. computer crime legislation. Web. Scheb, J. 2011, Criminal Law, Cengage Learning, London. Schell, B. 2004, Cybercrime: A Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO, New York. Schiller, J. 2010, Cyber Attacks Protection, CreateSpace, New York. Wall, D. 2007, Cybercrime: The Transformation of Crime in the Information Age, Polity, New York. Wyler, N. 2005, Aggressive Network Self-Defense, Elsevier, Massachussets. This research paper on Self Defence Issues and Implication in Cyberspace was written and submitted by user Barbara Berry to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Beloved Adenuga Essays (849 words) - Pan-Africanism, Free Essays

Beloved Adenuga Essays (849 words) - Pan-Africanism, Free Essays Beloved Adenuga Dr. Greg Carr AFRO 005 sec 02 14 September,2017 How do we Undertake the Study of African Experience? ABSTRACT: We undertake the study of the African experience by studying the history of African people and by evaluating time periods to make sense of the African experience. We should know the origin of our people and understand what they knew so we can explain what is happening today. We also should understand the dismemberment of Africa and how that affected African peoples' cultural identity. CRITICAL REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP: I could answer framing question by pulling out points from Ngugi WA Thiong'o Something Torn and New and Gregg E. Carr's Towards an Intellectual History of Africana Studies: Genealogy and Normative Theory. Something Torn and New helped me understand the need to preserve our identity as Africans and not allow the Europeans to take away our cultural heritage and identity. Something Torn and New is a very thought-provoking book as it discusses in-depth the quest for African renaissance(rebirth). From the book Towards an Intellectual History of Africana Studies: Genealogy and Normative Theory, I understood how African people maintained their "self" throughout history despite the hardship that they been through. The book also made it clear that Africans will still face more hardship but it's only through unity that they will be able to win the fight against racism. Both books were very helpful in answering the framing question. Something torn and new made use of native stories to explain African experiences. Towards an Intellectual History of African Studies gave three major macro-episodic challenges face by Africans over the course of their encounter with the West which were helpful; however, I had difficulty understanding some concepts discussed in this book. DISCUSSION: We study African experiences because it applies to and affects everybody. To undertake the study of African experiences one must understand the dismemberment of African people from their origin and culture. From Something Torn and New, "The dismemberment of Africa occurred in two stages. During the first of these, the African personhood was divided into two halves: the continent and its diaspora." Dismemberment began in the colonial eras because of the need of slaves to work on land stolen from the native Americans and the Caribbean. Africans were colonized and taken away from their continent to work as slaves. Africans were also stripped off their memory. According to Dr. Carr "when someone's memory is cut off the notion of who they are is going to be informed by other people". The name of an object has everything to do with how it is identified, classified, and remembered. The memory of Africans was cut off by the oppressors by changing the names of Africans therefore c hanging their identities. African art works were stolen and taken to be stored in British museums; this is also to deprive Africans of their memory. Time and space also helps to understand the study of African experiences. The challenge of time and space is miseducation. For example, the challenge of time and space erased the genealogy of Phillis Wheatley as a Muslim. Her name was changed from Fatima to Phillis, after the name of the boat that brought her, and Wheatley after the name of her master. Her first two languages were Wolof and Arabic but she was made to learn new languages like English, Latin, Greek. From Something torn and New, "Africans, in the diaspora and on the continent, were soon to be the recipients of this linguistic logic of conquest, with two results: linguicide in the case of the diaspora and linguistic famine, or linguifam, on the continent". The forcing of Africans to learn and communicate in different languages other than their cultural language is Linguicide. But a situation where the older ones do not teach the younger ones the language of their origin, it is referred to as Linguifam. The challenge of time and space also creates blackness as the primary maker for power relationship. "African deep thought must now speak for itself. Rather than set up interview schedule containing the great issue of European Philosophical enquiry, African champions must break the chain that links African idea to European ideas and listen to the voice of the ancestors without European interpreters".

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Information Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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DELL SWOTT TABLE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

DELL SWOTT TABLE - Assignment Example The business macro environment describes factors like competition, clients, industries, market, companies and even clients. In the past Dell, unlike most of its competitors, has not made any significant accomplishments in the smartphone technology and business. Resultantly, this has led to a lot of criticism for the past decade with most people questioning its proficiency even in its core field, which is computer technology. In 2009, Dell launched its first ever smartphone that most of its supporters, consumers and other stakeholders had been waiting for with a lot of fanaticism, which is understandable considering its reputation in computer technology (Holman, 2005). The Mini 3i was among the biggest disappointments of the company as most of the reviews termed it as an attempt. The most disappointing thing was the location of the launch as the Chinese got the first experience being the aim market for Dell; evidently, this itself was substandard for the people in the west. This development has meant that the company conducts an analysis of its environment in order to determined the right approaches and strategies it can use in its marketing and other important functions towards it operations (Holman, 2005). It is important to realize that business environment analysis is an important process that happens for all businesses that want to create competitive advantages in their business operations. The internal business environment contains factors that the business can manipulate in the process of creating its competitive advantages (Arthur, 2012). These factors make up the strengths and weaknesses for a business when analyzing its SWOT. Some of the important factors in Dell computer’s internal business environment include the following With regard to strategy, the company relies on various approaches in its market entry requirements. The company has managed to put up a team that conducts

Creativity: The Most Common Tool to Explain Human Origin?

Creativity: The Most Common Tool to Explain Human Origin? Has Creativity Been the Most Common Tool to Explain Human Origin? Bryan Perez   Abstract The creative process is directly involved in the development of theories that explain the mans origin. In like manner, the religion and the science are connected by their provenance. The contemporaneous beliefs and the cultural stories from ancient civilizations are also influenced by creativity, equally, evolution shows a creative development located in some stages that shows morphological and psychological changes. This paper evaluates the creative influence in the development of theories which explain the mans origin. Web sources and also relevant books were used to identify and link different points of view about the topic. The most remarkable results locate the creativity as the process that humans develop all along, with attention to chronological interpretations such as the evolution stages and also common points in different religious and cultural beliefs. Finally, the conclusion stablishes how creativity may influence the theories postulation, issue where it should be as obj ective as possible to attempt to explain facts instead of thoughts. Introduction It is said that God has created man in his own image. But it may be that humankind has created God in the image of humankind (Hanh, 1999). Sometimes, people ask themselves how everything around them was created. What or Who is the creator of everything? Answers to these questions are generated by the same common people, children, teachers, youths and scientists, who constantly ask for explanations about their origin. This origin is usually related to some theories (creationism and evolutionism), which come from a process of investigation and a little part of imagination. Even when these theories explain facts (National Center for Science Education, n.d., para. 3), scientists do not have enough evidence about the first yoctosecond of the Universes existence. They may be obligated to complete the missing piece of the puzzle with some ideas elaborated by their creative minds. The evolution theory has undergone some changes throughout history. It is a consequence of the creative influence on the development of new theories. For interesting topics, creativity is really useful. Scientists should be conscious of the information they provide with their theories. Mans creativity has been an important part of the explanation of his origin, this statement is sustained in three relevant aspects: mans creation theories with a common theme about a creator, human evolutive process and its refutations, and lastly, the creative development that leads to reason beyond simple ideas. Common theme in creation theories Have been heard about humans out of yellow and white corn (Batz, 2012)? Or maybe Lake Titicaca Story? Those are theories that explain mans origin on the Mayas and the Incas creation. In another part, the Creationist theory is really linked with these, concluding that there are different theories about mans origin, but all of them have a common point of a unique Creator. Humans origin theories To understand the influence of creativity on these humans origin theories, it is necessary to explain three common examples. As the Bible says: So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them (Gen. 1:27 English Standard Version). For Christianism, like a monotheistic religion, God is the only explanation for all questions about how man has come into existence until now. In another place the Mayas theory tells that the Creators (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) wanted to create human beings with hearts and minds who could keep the days (Batz, 2012). This last phrase complicated the situation for the Mayas gods, because they had to create three different types of humans. The first group was made of mud, but rain destroyed them and moreover they could not speak. Gods tried again, and created mans of wood, but these did not revere them. When these deities finally created humans out of yellow and white corn who could talk, they were satisfied (Batz, 2012), because these had intelligence and respect for their creators. In a last comparative theory, Incas converge in a general idea. God Viracocha created Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo[1], who emerged from the Lake Titicaca and walked guided by a wooden bar directly to El Cuzco, place where they found the Inca Empire (Cobo, 1979). Creativity on this common point As it is remarkable, the theories have showed a common theme in the idea of an only Creator or Creators. For Christianism, the human being was created from mud, while for the Mayas, muds man was a failure. The Incas, for their part, create a couple similar to Adam and Eve in Christianism but one more time, their God was who create everything around. Except for Christianity, the others are polytheistic, but this does not change that in almost every culture around the world, the religion of a particular culture began with a concept of a masculine, creator God who lives in the heavens (Zukeran, 2007). In the same line, creativity is therefore, responsible for this common point. Human beings develop creative ideas from 6 resources- intellectual processes, knowledge, intellectual style, personality, motivation, and environmental context (Sternberg Lubart, 1991). In consequence, it is thinkable that Individuals may be driven to try to create a sense of coherent self-identity through time, in particular in self-narratives of their development (Feinsten, 2006, p.26); in other words, past civilizations have developed the necessity to create a God in who believed and whom they can worship. To sum up, the similarities founded reflect that there is a common point that prevails between the theories analyzed, this point reflects the creative influence that man uses to explain his own origin in a religious context. Human evolutive process and its refutations It has been thought that evolution is the most acceptable theory to explain the mans origin. The theory bases its main argument on the most evidence that has been discovered through time, nonetheless, this theory has its own refutations, too. On this way, scientists are creative people who beyond postulate a theory, postulate a creative bond that establish the evolution as the explanation for the mans origin. The process of the evolution A Belgian priest, astronomer and professor of physics, Georges Lemaà ®tre proposed the Big Bang theory in 1933. For Catholicism, it was declared as a scientific validation, however, Lemaà ®tre resented this proclamation, stating that the theory was neutral and there was neither a connection nor a contradiction between his religion and his theory (Landsberg, 1999). As it is seen, this theory has a religious origin; but at the same time, it is considered like a valuable explanation for the current science. Lemaà ®tres thought gave birth the Evolution theory by explaining the Earth origin, place where human beings evolved from apes. It was only late in the Tertiary period (about 3-4 million years ago) that one of the branches of the Primates evolved into humans (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Human fossils as well as molecular genetic and biochemical evidence demonstrate the existence of early life forms, which developed before and prepared the present living beings (Facchini, 2002). Do the refutations show a creative intervention of scientists? A 2010 study found no net fruit fly evolution after 600 generations (Thomas, 2012). This fact demonstrates that scientists do not concordat in a common explanation for the evolution process. In addition, another evidence tells that the transition from an amphibians three-chambered heart to a mammals four-chambered heart would require either a new internal heart wall that would block vital blood flow (Thomas, 2012). On the other hand, fossils are the main evidence to support the evolution theory; but as Ph.D. John D. Morris says, fossils appear abruptly in the record, fully formed and fully functional without less adapted ancestors in lower levels that would have preceded them in time (2003). This shows that fossils do not explain evolution as such, so it may be considered that scientists created the bonds between missing links of the evolution theory. The article Scientists are more creative than you might imagine, shows that the improvising brains (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) let the ideas bubble to the surface (Ossola, 2014). Some lines after, the article explain that its going to be the same phenomenon on scientists. Thus, it is reasonable to identify that scientists may develop an involuntary process of creativity when they try to explain unlinked ages of the evolution theory. The reason of all Creativity is the process of having original ideas that have value (Robinson, 2006), thus, it is possible to ask, how may the people create their own origin story by using their creativity? The creative development leads to establish questions or answers about this topic. Scientific postulations and also religious theories have a little influence of subjective thoughts. Indeed, the creativity is much more than an innate quality, it is a state where it is possible to create something. It is exemplified in the students who may demonstrated this by developing their skills into the schools. So, teachers have the big duty of drive the way students learn and what they need to learn (Segan, 2016), because it is changing rapidly. The reason of all comes from this fact, even with the scarcity of modern (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) supplies in poor parts of the world (Childress, 2007), creativity may be developed in every sense; including the development of new theories applicable to the subject of evolution or the mans origin. The reason of all also involves a great link between actual teachers and future scientists, something similar to the educational development of Finland (Faust, 2011), where the creativity is one of the pillars of the education. Therefore, the creative process shows that creativity is the question and the answer for this topic, it is involved in developing or repairing ideas to connect everything related in a theory postulation. In conclusion, the explanation for the mans origin is due to the creative process. This idea is based on three relevant aspects: theories of mans creation, human evolutive process, and lastly the creative development that leads to establish questionable answers about our origin. For the etymology of the Incas and also the Mayas, their existence comes from a gods creation. Historically, the Christianity changed these thoughts into a conventional belief in an only almighty God, who answers every question about human existence. On the contrary, the evolution theory postulates a continuous process of development during several generations in past ages of life. The creative intervention is located in every theory. Humans have a psychological need for a transcendent being that provides meaning and hope to their existence in this vast impersonal universe (Zukeran, 2007). This phrase clears the idea about how the man may include his own thoughts in objective statements like theories. Sometimes, creativity is underestimated in several ways, especially for science works, but it is an inherent quality of the human existence; so, the creativity influences our thoughts. The human being and his origin is a questionable topic. There are some theories of how he could exist from the first period of time. Creator or creators, evolution or not, the creativity was shown as the question and the answer for this topic because it is involved in developing or repairing ideas to connect everything related in a theory postulation. [1] The first couple of human beings in the Incas theory.

Land, Public and Private Essay

1. Why do humans value land? Humans value land because it has multiple purposes such as agriculture, housing, recreation, industry, disposing waste, mining, etc. 2. What is the tragedy of the commons? What is an externality? The tragedy of commons is when people share a common resource they tend to deplete is because of self-interest and for a short term profit. 3. What is maximum sustainable yeild? Maximum sustainable yield is the maximum amount of harvest that the land can produce without having to compensate the future of the land or resource. 4. What are the main uses of public lands in the U.S.? The main uses of public lands in the United States is National parks, Managed resource protections areas, Habitat and species management areas, Strict Nature reserves and Wilderness areas, Protected landscapes and seascapes, National monuments, etc. 5. How do human land use decisions influence categories of public land classification? Human land use decisions influence categories of public land classification because what land we have interest in we will express more environmental policies, laws, and put more time in managing the land. 6. What are the ways in which timber is harvested in U.S. Forest, and how do they compare in terms of their environmental impact? Timber in the United States is harvest by commercial logging in exchange for a percentage of revenue. Clear cutting removes almost all of the trees within a certain area. This method is the most economical method because all the trees will be the same age because they are all planted at the same time. This method can also cause habitat alterations that can lose biodiversity. Selective cutting removes single trees out of a few number of trees. This method works only among shade tolerant trees because the other trees grow adjacently. The environment impact is less but the overall negatives effects are the same. 7. What is the significance of the National Wilderness Area designation for parts of federally owned lands? The significance of the National Wilderness Area for  parts of federally owned lands is to set aside land to preserve large intact ecosystems. The designated wilderness area however has roads that existed before the designations and may be still in use, mining activities can be permitted , and human use is limited but can still be done. 8. What is NEPA, and what is an environmental impact statements (EIS)? A NEPA is the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. This act involves federal money or federal permits. The Environmental impact statement (EIS) outlines the scope and purpose of development project that describes the environmental context. 9. What are urban sprawl and smart growth? Urban sprawl is the creation of urbanized areas that spread into rural areas and remove clear boundaries. Smart growth is the strategies that encourage the development of sustainable, healthy communities. 10. How can zoning help reduce urban sprawl? Zoning can help reduce urban sprawl because it can create a quieter and safer community.